Eugenics Essays (1491 words) - Medical Ethics, Molecular Biology

Eugenics President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, as the nation approached its third year of bloody civil war. The proclamation declared that all persons held as slaves within the rebellious states are, and henceforward shall be free. The Civil War was fought to save the republic and free the enslaved. World War II was fought to save the world and stop a group which thought they were a superior race. What do these two wars have in common? They were fought, in part, for equality. The difference or believed difference between people causes tension and discrimination. Genetic engineering will cause a new form of differences between people and will cause an infinite amount of damage. Along with the potential damage, genetic engineering is morally and religiously wrong. Although genetic engineering has not been fully developed, we have come a long way and are now very close. The Human Genome project has almost mapped every one of a humans chromosomes. Doctors can now tell you if you have or if your child will inherit a certain disease. But first what are genes? Genes are often described as 'blueprints' or 'computer programs' for our bodies and all living organisms. Genes are specific sequences of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that are used in the production of proteins. They are a single factor among many. They provide the 'list of ingredients' which is then organized by the 'dynamical system' of the organism. That 'dynamical system' determines how the organism is going to develop. A recipe of ingredients alone does not create a dish of food. a gene is not an easily identifiable and tangible object. It is not only the DNA sequence which determines its functions in the organisms, but also its location in a specific chromosomal, cellular, physiological and evolutionary context. It is therefore difficult to predict the impact of genetic material transfer on the functioning of the extremely tightly controlled, integrated and balanced functioning of all the tens of thousands of structures and processes that make up the body of any complex organism (Vanaja,24.) Therefore, genetic engineering, also known as eugenics, refers to the artificial modification of the genetic code of a living organism. Genetic engineering changes the fundamental physical nature of the organism, sometimes in ways that would never occur in nature. Genetic engineering is religiously wrong. To the majority of the United States that is Christian, genetic engineering would pose a serious problem. In the Bible it states, And God created man in His own image, in the image of God He created him: male and female He created them.(Genesis, 1-27) Notice, it says that God created man in His own image It does not say man was created in his parents image. For a religious person, the choice is left to the superior being they believe in. It is not right for us to create another person to fit our wants and needs. Not only would you be taking the role of the superior being (if you believe in a superior being) or Mother Nature, but you would also be deciding your childs destiny. So, to the population of the world that is religious or believes in destiny, genetic engineering would be making decisions that should not be made by another human. A genetically engineered child would stand as a symbol that defies any religion practiced. This child woul d be a symbol for man being more powerful than God, Jesus, Alla, Buddha, Mother Nature, and Destiny. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal(Jefferson,1). Genetically engineering a person would make the Declaration of Independence meaningless. When this document was written the creators assumed everyone was created with the same chance to be someone great and healthy, hence everyone is created equal. However, once people have the chance to genetically enhance their child, people will no longer be created equal. Society will crumble due to the instant fall of the basic beliefs on which this country was built. Also, depression will become wide spread, because if you were not modified during birth, than you will have no chance to succeed. Today we hear so much about insurance companies in the news, on the radio, and in

Free Essays on History Of Internet

Origins of the Internet The first recorded description of the social interactions that could be enabled through networking was a series of memos written by J.C.R. Licklider of MIT in August 1962 discussing his "Galactic Network" concept. He envisioned a globally interconnected set of computers through which everyone could quickly access data and programs from any site. In spirit, the concept was very much like the Internet of today. Licklider was the first head of the computer research program at DARPA, 4 starting in October 1962. While at DARPA he convinced his successors at DARPA, Ivan Sutherland, Bob Taylor, and MIT researcher Lawrence G. Roberts, of the importance of this networking concept. Leonard Kleinrock at MIT published the first paper on packet switching theory in July 1961 and the first book on the subject in 1964. Kleinrock convinced Roberts of the theoretical feasibility of communications using packets rather than circuits, which was a major step along the path towards computer networking. The other key step was to make the computers talk together. To explore this, in 1965 working with Thomas Merrill, Roberts connected the TX-2 computer in Mass. to the Q-32 in California with a low speed dial-up telephone line creating the first (however small) wide-area computer network ever built. The result of this experiment was the realization that the time-shared computers could work well together, running programs and retrieving data as necessary on the remote machine, but that the circuit switched telephone system was totally inadequate for the job. Kleinrock's conviction of the need for packet switching was confirmed. In late 1966 Roberts went to DARPA to develop the computer network concept and quickly put together his plan for the "ARPANET", publishing it in 1967. At the conference where he presented the paper, there was also a paper on a packet network concept from the UK by Donald Davies and Roger Scantlebury of NPL. Scantl... Free Essays on History Of Internet Free Essays on History Of Internet Origins of the Internet The first recorded description of the social interactions that could be enabled through networking was a series of memos written by J.C.R. Licklider of MIT in August 1962 discussing his "Galactic Network" concept. He envisioned a globally interconnected set of computers through which everyone could quickly access data and programs from any site. In spirit, the concept was very much like the Internet of today. Licklider was the first head of the computer research program at DARPA, 4 starting in October 1962. While at DARPA he convinced his successors at DARPA, Ivan Sutherland, Bob Taylor, and MIT researcher Lawrence G. Roberts, of the importance of this networking concept. Leonard Kleinrock at MIT published the first paper on packet switching theory in July 1961 and the first book on the subject in 1964. Kleinrock convinced Roberts of the theoretical feasibility of communications using packets rather than circuits, which was a major step along the path towards computer networking. The other key step was to make the computers talk together. To explore this, in 1965 working with Thomas Merrill, Roberts connected the TX-2 computer in Mass. to the Q-32 in California with a low speed dial-up telephone line creating the first (however small) wide-area computer network ever built. The result of this experiment was the realization that the time-shared computers could work well together, running programs and retrieving data as necessary on the remote machine, but that the circuit switched telephone system was totally inadequate for the job. Kleinrock's conviction of the need for packet switching was confirmed. In late 1966 Roberts went to DARPA to develop the computer network concept and quickly put together his plan for the "ARPANET", publishing it in 1967. At the conference where he presented the paper, there was also a paper on a packet network concept from the UK by Donald Davies and Roger Scantlebury of NPL. Scantl...

Why was Microsoft so dominant during the birth of the personal Dissertation

Why was Microsoft so dominant during the birth of the personal computing era and beyond - Dissertation Example ’, this study revealed that the decision of Bill Gates to focus on developing useful software (i.e. Microsoft Office, MS-Word, Excel, and PowerPoint) triggered the success and triumph of this company. By not spending much money in the development of computer hardware, Microsoft was able to easily enter into a business partnership with other companies like IBM as part of making its software products widely accepted by the end-consumers. Despite the ability of Microsoft to dominate the personal computer industry, the primary research findings revealed that there are some IT experts who are not satisfied with the security and software quality offered by Microsoft as compared to other software manufacturers like Mac. To preserve Microsoft’s position as one of the world’s widely known software developer, this study strongly suggest the need on the part of Microsoft personnel to focus on solving security problems among others. Table of Contents Executive Summary †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 2 Table of Contents †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 3 1. Introduction †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 5 1.1 Terms of Reference †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 5 1.2 Main Objective †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 5 1.3 Sub Aims/Objectives †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 5 1.4 Achieving the Objectives †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 5 1.5 Introduc tion to the Texts Being Critically Reviewed .. 6 1.5.1 Foreword †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 6 1.5.2 Source of Reliability †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦... 6 2. Literature Review †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 8 2.1 Authors’ Main Claims to the Research Question †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 8 2.1.1 A Brief History of Computing †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 8 2.1.2 The Rise of Microsoft †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 9 2.1.3 The Corporate Strategy of Bill Gates †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 10 2.1.4 Technological Advancements †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 11 2.1.5 Marketing and Public Attitudes †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 13 3. Research Methodology †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 15 3.1 Primary Research Framework †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 15 3.2 Research Survey Questionnaire Design †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦... 17 3.3 Target Population, Sample Size, and Research Venue †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 18 3.4 Research Evaluation and Analysis Method †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 19 3.5 Research Ethics †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 20 4. Research Findings and Analysis †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 22 5. Conclusion †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 27 Appendix I – Quantitative Research Survey Questionnaire †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 28 Appendi x II – Research Interview Questionnaire †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 31 Appendix III – Age Group of Research Survey Respondents †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 32 Appendix IV – Estimated Time of Using a Personal Computer †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 33 Appendix V – Types of Computer Owned by the Research Survey Respondents †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 34 Appendix VI – Length of Time Using a Computer at Work or Home .. 35 Appendix VII – Confidence Level with Regards to the Use of Computers in Carrying Out Everyday Tasks †¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 36 Appendix VIII – Confidence Level in Using Microsoft Windows in Carrying Out Everyday Tasks †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 37 Appendix IX – Brand of Operating System Installed on Computers and Other Related Devices †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 38 Appendix X  œ Brand of Operating System Installed in Home Computers and Laptops †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 39 Appendix XI –

Snyder v. Phelps Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Snyder v. Phelps - Research Paper Example __). The picketers also peacefully displayed the following signs â€Å"for about 30 minutes before the funeral began†: ‘Thank God for Dead Soldiers,’ ‘Fags Doom Nations,’ ‘America is Doomed,’ ‘Priests Rape Boys,’ and ‘You’re Going to Hell’ (Snyder, 562 U.S. __). These signs were seen by Matthew Snyder’s father (Snyder), while driving to the funeral (Snyder, 562 U.S. __). However, he was only able to learn what was written on the signs when he watched the night news broadcast (Snyder, 562 U.S. __). For this reason, he filed â€Å"a diversity action against Phelps, along with those who participated in the picketing—and the church (collectively Westboro) alleging, as relevant here, state tort claims of intentional infliction of emotional distress, intrusion upon seclusion, and civil conspiracy† (Snyder, 562 U.S. __). The jury held Westboro liable for millions of dollars in compensatory and punitive damages, but the District Court reduced the punitive damages award, leaving the verdict intact (Snyder, 562 U.S. __). The Fourth Circuit however reversed such a ruling, stating that since â€Å"statements were on matters of public concern, were not provably false, and were expressed solely through hyperbolic rhetoric,† Westboro’s statements were then protected by the First Amendment (Snyder, 562 U.S. __). Hence, this petition for Certiorari by Snyder. In its decision, the US Court of Appeals sided with the Fourth Circuit and held that Westboros statements were indeed protected by the First Amendment, shielding it from tort liability. First it explained that the Free Speech Clause under the First Amendment can work â€Å"as a defense in state tort suits, including suits for intentional infliction of emotional distress† (Snyder, 562 U.S. __). The Court then went on to examine the content of Westboro’s signs, to determine whether it is of public or private

Constitutional and adminstrative law - (Conventions) Essay

Constitutional and adminstrative law - (Conventions) - Essay Example (Carroll, 2007) In UK royal prerogative has been used by the Monarch himself since centuries however, the trends changed and during 19th century, it was decided to get the advice of the Prime Minister or the cabinet in order to exercise this right. However, this has changed gradually and it is now even argued that royal prerogative has no place in the modern Western democracy. The fact that Tony Blair and Coalition government went to war by directly consenting the parliament itself may be considered as a trend shift suggesting that there now exists a convention to seek parliament’s consent for any action. This paper will therefore discuss as to whether there is a convention now which outlines that every government in country would take consent of the parliament for any actions taken. This paper will therefore argue whether a convention exists to restrict royal prerogative to go to war. There is no fixed definition of convention as it has been defined differently by various authors. Hood Philips defines conventions as â€Å"Ê ºRules of political practice, which are regarded as binding, by those to whom they apply, but which are not laws because they are not enforced by the courts and parliament†. (Philips, 2001). This definition may be considered as one of the earliest attempts to define what conventions are and under what conditions and authority they can be enforced. Philips outlines conventions as rules of political practice which are also not laws and therefore not enforced by the courts as well as the parliament. The above definition of convention therefore outlines that are understandings which regulate the conduct of the Crown and Parliament in the absence of any formal rules. Constitutional conventions therefore are considered as the tools through which flexibility can be achieved in constitution without actually going through a process of legislation. As such the ultimate purpose for which

The 4g Wireless Networks

The 4g Wireless Networks The current system has very limited services; 4G is going to be The Technology which is going to be highly in demand. With the developing of 4G this power can be utilized to its fullest potential for various people in different walks of life. This is will help the military services of any nation to a great extent as the video clarity and data transfer speed will help the uniformed men in the war front. Likewise for the corporate this is a boon as they can have virtual offices all over the world and monitor their business by sitting in one corner of the world. And even for the personal use it is of great help to the people as it has the better quality of service, connectivity and also helps the people in all the fields. This fourth generation helps us to gather all kinds of information which is needed without any difficulty. This 4G has lots more benefits when compared to the 3G and it also provides better service to the people in a high level. Introduction: The wireless technologies evolution has many generations such as 1G, 2G which is of wireless cellular system. The wireless systems which are currently in use provide only limited services. The users of 2G and 2.5G are asking for better quality in data, multimedia and voice similar to the quality of the wired. But the data rate required for it is very high, which is also beyond the 3G capabilities. This motivated in the research of the Fourth Generation wireless network s (4G). The 4G vision unifies many mobile and the wireless networks. Anyway, there is a basic difference to the wireless cellular and the WLANs. The wireless networks in the fourth generation will have different networks and it will overlie one with the other. The mobile station which has multiple interfaces will be fully equipped which will enhance its mobility. The 4G wireless networks will have different kinds of wireless components which will provide large number of service to the users, so that the people can communicate with the help of these networks and architecture. The 4G wireless networks are very flexible and will provide wide range of technology to the users. They will not only be able to use the internet services but also will be able to use the other services like voice and some other day-to-day applications. They not only help in improving the services but also help us to obtain wide range of information and services. Requirements: The 4G is a safe and secure platform and many services can be made use of it. It gives the complete satisfaction to the users. Low Handoff: This handoff will cause the delay in the services and it will also create loss to the communication of the data. Hence this should be managed for the better communication. Access: The access is the important thing in the 4G networks as it gives connectivity to the users and it also provides the end services. Network: The network should be of multi-service so that it will not only give the basic access but also gives a wide range of services to the people who will need voice and other services. Broadband: The 4G network integrates using the high end platform and it is also cheaper and effective to use, and it can be maintained easily. Security service: For success of 4G, the important aspect is security and to make sure that the networks are safe and protected. Models: The 4G has different range of models and it can be made use as required. Optimal networks: In this, according to the agreement the optimal network for the service is selected and the connectivity is selected based on the internet network layer. Hybrid networks: The core layers will be present and the layers will have networks of different kinds which will be presented layer below layer. Heterogeneous networks: This deals with different and all kinds of networks which has one common network. When the core layer is the same it minimizes the overheads and will also improve in the performance of the network. The fourth generation wireless network comprises 4 basic layers. They are Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN), Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN), Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN), and Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN). WPAN Networks WLAN Networks WMAN Networks WWAN Networks The networks of the lower levels has high bandwidth and play a small area of networking and sometimes the networks of the lower level can play the role of the networks in the higher level. The WPAN has the shortest network connectivity. It has connection only to the personal needs like; the Bluetooth can be used with it. It covers only a relatively short distance. The WLAN also covers a short area, but more than the WPAN. It covers the local area. For e.g. the use of internet in an area. The WMAN covers more than the WLAN. It provides communication between a metropolitan area. The WWAN is the wide area but it does not have a very high bandwidth. The use of cellular, GSM can be accessed with this network. Wireless Fourth Generation Architecture: Inter Technology Hybrid Unit (HU): This hybrid unit acts as a bridge between the different layers. It combines many networks to access different technologies. The hybrid units are of different types, they are: WWAN-WMAN: This node provides a link between the WWAN and the WMAN network. For the WWAN it can act as the base station and for the WMAN it acts as a subscriber station. WMAN-WLAN: For the WLAN this unit acts as an access point, and for WMAN, it is the subscriber station. WLAN-WPAN: The networks WLAN and WPAN will be interconnected using this unit. It can operate the Bluetooth the ad-hoc networks. The main components of the cellular networks are the Mobile Switching Center (MSC), Home location Register (HLR), Serving GRPS Support Mode (SGSN). Properties of 4G: Network Architecture: It has Hybrid network architecture. Driving Architecture: It has converged data and voice over IP. Switching: It has digitalized switching with packetized voice. Radio Access: MC-CDMA, OFDMA. Database: ELHR, VLR, EIR, AuC. Data rates: It has data rates of 100Mbpsc. Roaming: It has global roaming. Compatible: It is compatible to 3G. Handsets: Numerous mode voice, data streamed video with higher data rates. Applications: Internet, MMS, Multimedia, HDTV M TV Bandwidth: It has bandwidth of 100MHz Frequency Band: It has higher frequency bands of 2-8 MHz Component Design: It has smaller antennas, software multiband and wideband radios. FEC Tech: It has concatenated coding scheme. IP: All IP (IP6.0) As the wireless communication system develops the expectations and the demand among the people keeps increasing. These wireless networks work on their capacity and limits also has some crucial period. The re-configurability can be done at any level, and it will be useful for the network provider as well as the user perspective. This provides selection between the alternate networks and is based upon all the issues. The re-configurability mechanism tells not only about the physical layer but also the stacks of the entire protocol. These 4G systems will provide many features to the users and it will provide end-to-end connectivity. The accessing, roaming and the other dynamic features are very useful and everything is obtained at a minimal cost. They can also choose between the other wireless networks if required. The following figure shows about the interoperability of the 4G layers. The 4G networks usually support the global roaming and the end-to-end services in the wireless networks, and these thing usually depend upon the Quality of Service issues (QoS). The capacity and the bandwidth for the 4G should be many times more than that of the 3G to meet the business requirements. The 4G depends not only upon the speed and version but entirely for its service and the quality. The main difference between the 4G and the previous generations is that in 4G both the voice and data can be sent, but in the other generations the voice and only a small amount of data can be sent across. The 4G can be used wireless with the Digital Subscriber line (DSL). The people throughout the world would be benefited and can use for communication, as its service and quality are very good. They can even do business from one part of the world to the other as it has good speed and is reliable. The people who have not yet used the 3G can directly hop on the 4G as it is more useful and of good speed. It will be based on the network IP technology. 4G is more useful than Wi-Fi. In Wi-Fi the distance matters and it can be accessed only in the slow path. But this 4G is faster and it can be accessed from any place and it is also cost-effective. Quality of Service: The quality of service plays a very challenging role in the 4G networks. It provide a wide range of service and a better quality to the users. There are 4 types of quality of service, they are: 1. Packet- level Quality of service: This QoS refers to the packet level service which also takes care of the error rate, and the space occupied by the buffer. It has a good packet quality which is very helpful to the users. 2. Transaction level Quality of Service: This transaction level depends on the transaction time it takes to complete a service and also about the packet loss. Some of networks can accept the packet loss but the others cannot. 3. Circuit level Quality of Service: The circuit level service is about the calls which have been connected and also about the circuit level transfer and other transactions. It provides a good quality of service for the calls and services. 4. User-level Quality of Service: The user level quality depends upon the application and the other services. It also depends upon the mobility of the users which may support the quality of the network. Conclusion: 4 G is developed with the following aspects and advantages: Ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s speed would be 50 times high than 3G. The expected bandwidth of 4G is about 10Mbps. It has options of three-dimensional virtual reality, video and the ability to feel at the event even if you are not present physically there. We get to interact with people, products and know about the places when the cyber and real world merge. The smart card in your mobile would advice you to do what next as it will be monitoring your movements. Last but not the least 4G will provide access and support for authentication, paying off bills, security and also supports whichever has mobile specific services.

The Fear of Science :: Scientific Essays Papers

The Fear of Science My whole life I have loved science. The fact that people, mankind, has the ability to invent things that make our world better, easier, or even worse off amazes me. I am absolutely astounded by science. Every single aspect of science is fascinating, from cancer research to the periodic table of elements, all is so interesting. Why people abandon, reject or have no interest in science is a question that I propose. Is it because they purely do not care? Or maybe it is fear. Resistance to science is born of fear (Bishop 241). This quote by J. Michael Bishop is a great example of why the world often avoids science. I feel that science is something that people often take for granted. Science is very significant to me because it is my major. I want to be a nurse practitioner and that is based on anatomy and biology. These two sciences are based on the human body, which is an amazing machine. Through science we have been able to learn more about our bodies. We now know how our bodies work, why they shut down and how to help when it does. The research done based on the human body has given us medicines to live longer and have a more fulfilling life. With the study of the human body we also know what is bad for us, like smoking and drinking, and what is good for us, like exercise and a balanced diet. These things should be significant to everyone because without the knowledge, our lives would be shorter than they already are. Science has helped us in many ways. Along with studying our bodies, it has provided insight on how the world and universe works. We know why volcanoes erupt and how earthquakes happen. This knowledge is helpful to us because we can prepare for natural disasters. Another thing that science has given to our society is technology. I feel that the two go hand in hand. From electricity to cell phones, all have been developed by science. Computers are also a part of our daily life and make things much easier for us. Our society does not appreciate scienc e the way it should, rather it just raises the expectations of science. Yet despite these proud achievements, science today is increasingly mistrusted and under attack (Bishop 237). Bishops quote clearly shows that science is taken for granted.